Discussion on Poppers and Sobers View of Simplicity Essay Example

Discussion on Poppers and Sobers View of Simplicity Essay Poppers theory of simplicity is directly derived from his Falsification theory. To illustrate this we can say that; it is true that Popper decreed that the more falsifiable a theory was; the better the theory is, and the better it will be received. If this is true; it is then is stated that the degree that a theory is falsifiable should track the degree to which a theory is simple; so if this were to be true should then prefer the theories that are highly simple (and falsifiability). So if we were to place this Im a real life scientific setting we could say that; i) parrots are feathery or ii) all birds are feathery. Now according to Popper ii) would be a better theory in terms of falsifiability and in terms of simplicity, as; it is falsified by more types of findings, could be falsified by any sighting of a non feathery bird; and it is more simple as a parrot is less simple, as it is much more specific, than birds in general. In terms of the merits of Poppers theory, in a perfect Popperian world this theory of simplicity would make life for scientists quite easy as it is a part of his theory of falsification. Further more his description and application of simplicity makes a great deal of sense, in terms of relation to parts of falsification which are part of the modern scientific process, as complicated and convoluted are usually quite difficult to debunk (falsify). We will write a custom essay sample on Discussion on Poppers and Sobers View of Simplicity specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Discussion on Poppers and Sobers View of Simplicity specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Discussion on Poppers and Sobers View of Simplicity specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer However, take this illustration of a mathematical equation representing a scientific theory, adapted from Post (1969); we have theory a), which represents a linear relationship: y = 1. 5 2x; whilst according to theory b) y = 1. 5 2x + 0. 32. Now according to Poppers falsifiability criteria of determining simplicity; the two theories of are equally as simple (since each can only be falsified by one occurrence). This leads to an automatic counter-intuitive result, which leaves the theory high and dry, as they are clearly not at the same level of simplicity. Sobers view on simplicity goes something like the following; instead of, unlike most who have tackled simplicity, relating simplicity to the correctness of a given theory, sober makes an attempt to relate simplicity to the informativeness of a theory. So what this essentially means for the premise of a simplicistic theory, is that simplicity should be concerned with how much information a theory or phenomena gives us in relation to how many laws, or premises, we begin with. To illustrate this better it may be more prudent to discuss Sobers theory in relation to inputs outputs; therefor simpler theories would produce more outputs in relation to the inputs. Furthermore, a more specific definition of Sobers argument is that the simplest theory may be the most informative one. Sobers theory, to me, is quite bold and, excuse the pun, a very simple way of determining the simplicity of a scientific theory. Unlike Popper and Quinean philosophy, Sober theory seems to give simplictity a greater level of importance, as science is all about gaining information which this theory draws it wisdom from. However, the theory runs into problems quite early on. One major problem concerning Sobers theory is that he tries to relate simplicity on a wider ontological level; which leaves me wondering; if we were use the theory that gives the most information, even if it was false, we would be in the position of having to accept it, and then gaining useless knowledge. If we were to assume that the problems that each theory faces never occurred, the theoretical virtue of Sobers simplicity, is that simplicity is directly influenced by the amount of information a theory has put into it, and outputted from it. Poppers theoretical virtue is the simplest theory is better, as a simple theory is easier to debunk and increases its falsifiability (as it doesnt possess any ad hoc escape routes). Personally I am more greatly drawn towards Sobers take on simplicity, as science is directly concern with the pursuit of knowledge, meaning that his criteria which determines whether a theory if simple or not is more logical. I feel that Popper, whilst does a good job of keeping the his theories in unity, necessarily approach the problem correctly whilst falsification seems to a vital piece of good scientific methodology, I cant quite see the connect between it and simplicity.

Article talks about hospital business offices Essays

Article talks about hospital business offices Essays Article talks about hospital business offices Paper Article talks about hospital business offices Paper Essay Topic: Talk This article talks about hospital business offices and the need for them to think like loan management teams of local banks and credit unions especially when collecting revenues from patients. This strategy will then aid hospitals to increase their cash collections as well as improve the financial experiences of the patients. This is significantly important today as the number of patients who shoulder their own medical expenses are on the rise. In fact, sixteen percent of patients who are insured have outstanding balances that are greater than 500 dollars. According to research, less than 2% of the total patients’ balances are collected before or upon discharge and of the balances that are 500 dollars and above, less than 8% are paid in full and this accounts for about 66% of business office patient collections. There is a need, therefore, to focus on two actions namely: prioritizing actions according to the expected cash potential and to think of the return on investment (ROI). An account with a larger balance does not equate to it being a valuable account. Accounts with greater expected cash value, therefore, necessitate a more intensive collection effort. As such, the author lists 3 operating priorities for business office preparations namely: (1) use healthcare specific predictive models as this will enable management to focus on the most valuable accounts in the most efficient manner, (2) employ multiple collection processes depending on the account cash value and the return on investment and (3) implement new reporting Theme The general theme of the article is to provide new information to improve the processes of the hospital business office. Point of View The point of view is factual and the author’s points are credible and convincing. Furthermore, the author provides a clear and understandable way of presenting data. He illustrates his arguments explicitly and gives specific examples on each point. However, the author cited several researches to base his points in, of which the sources were not named. Issue Analysis: Actions should be prioritized depending on the account’s cash potential. In a research, less than 1/3 of patient accounts generate 80% of the cash collections meaning that these accounts do not have a high value. Furthermore, an account with a large balance does not equate to its cash value. A healthcare specific predictive model should be utilized in order to successfully identify accounts that are of higher value. By utilizing this type of model, the process of cash collections will be improved and at the same time, will minimize the operating expenses. In addition, the collection experiences of patients are improved. By prioritizing those that have the most cash value, the likelihood of the collection team pressuring people with accounts of limited cash value is considerably reduced. A focus on cash value is important as this is the issue that the business office team needs to answer. In a situation outside the area of healthcare, a product or service may be stopped or denied anytime. In the field of healthcare however, it is not usually possible to deny or stop the service immediately and the bill can take several weeks before being sent out to the consumer. The collection strategy utilized by hospitals should be in accordance with the cash value of the patient’s account. Consumers who possess the account with the highest cash value should be devoted with special measures of communication such as extra letters and outbound calls. The hospital may be wasting its time and money by trying to pursue a customer who has a large balance but may not be likely to pay while endlessly pursuing consumers who have more chances of paying their balance. A collection report that measures success against the potential cash value should be implemented. The significant measurement is the cash potential as this is what should be collected by the team. The report should calculate the cash potential accurately for each account to avoid becoming ambiguity and confusion. A clear report can also depict appropriate trade-offs that are made and show that a maximization of the net cash is achieved. In addition, bad debt can be clearly traced which leads to improvements in patient access routines.

TEXTBOOK-Brinkley, American History, Connecting with the Past, Volume Essay - 1

TEXTBOOK-Brinkley, American History, Connecting with the Past, Volume II, McGraw Hill chapters23-24 - Essay Example Despite the fact that the stock market began regaining some of its losses towards the end of 1930, it was not sufficient to avert the onset of the economic depression. Another main cause was bank failures. The 1930s experienced over 9,000 bank failures. There was no insurance for bank deposits, hence with the failure of the banks, individuals simply ended up losing their savings. Because the surviving banks were not certain about the economic condition and had concerns about their own survival, they were not willing to issue new loans. This aggravated the existent situation and led to lesser expenditure. In addition to that was a drop in purchasing across the board. As the stock market had crashed and the advancement of further economic conundrums heightened, people across all classes stopped buying items. The result was a drop in the number of produced items, hence a reduced workforce. Individuals who had been laid off from their jobs were not in a position to deposit payments for i tems they had purchased via installment plans, leading to repossession of these items. The rate of accumulation of inventory began to increase. There was a rise of over 25% in unemployment which of course meant reduced spending that could abate the existent economic condition. The American policy with Europe also contributed in a great way to the Great Depression. With businesses starting to fall, the Smoot Hawley Tariff of 1930 was forged by the government in a bid to protect American governments. The tariff imposed high tariffs on imports resulting in reduced trade between foreign countries and America, coupled with retaliation in the economy (Brinkley, 604) President Hoover and the Republican Response to the Crisis In a similar fashion to the economic crisis of 2008, president Hoover assumed office immediately following the stock market crash in 1929. His response to the economic downturn was remarkably similar to the current response by the Federal Reserve and SEC. He did not wa nt to meddle with the markets and looked to offer support to the banking system by making an offer to fund business in return for collateral. As such, he started programs of public works. The lengths taken by Hoover were obscured by the great lengths that the Franklin Roosevelt administration took. Public works programs during this period had a sizeable impact upon a generation reliant on soup lines to survive. Attempts by president Hover to resolve the economic crisis were in most instances unsuccessful. His loss to Franklin Roosevelt in the 1932 presidential therefore was not a surprise. Hoover thereafter devoted a lot of time over the next dozen years to the fight by the Republicans against the New Deal, and believed that President Roosevelt would function to compromise the political system of the United States with his extensive government programs. Six weeks following the death of Roosevelt, Hoover held a meeting with President Harry Truman in May 1945. Together, they planned t o recover post-war Europe. Upon a request by Truman, Hoover travelled across the globe to afford the president a personal statement on food needs of the world. More significantly, Hoover rallied his fellow Republicans to offer support to President Truman’s food relief programs. Hoover worked as chairman of the newly-formed Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch which later came to be known as the Hoover commission, and worked in

Qualitative research critique on nurse attrition Paper

Qualitative critique on nurse attrition - Research Paper Example With these statistics and proof in mind, the factors that cause these are necessary to be identified in order to prevent the shift which sooner or later will be problematic (MacKusick & Minick, 2010). Physical exhaustion was bound to take place. Having to recommend someone else may also provide psychological risks because the subject may not have wanted any contact with former employees and the interview questions were many and too demanding. The researchers of this research article are both PhD holders and associate professors who teach nursing in renowned universities. MacKusick is from Clayton State University while Minick is from Georgia State University. The participants in this study were briefed about the purpose of the study and before they signed the consent forms to agree they were guaranteed anonymity. They were informed that it was voluntary and hence could leave anytime they wanted to. The best protection was that the participants used pseudonym during the interview and this guaranteed to protect them. The purpose of this research article was to find out the factors that influence the RN’s decisions to leave the field of clinical practice. The article however ends up not directly finding these reasons but having to seek their perceptions and then deduce from there the factors. No directly related information about the perception of RN’s was found and therefore the literature review search had to take a longer route to find most of the information about RN’s and clinical practice and this was in the psychological and sociological databases. The conclusion therefore is that there is missing gap of knowledge in this area of RN’s and their perceptions about clinical practice. The research question was â€Å"what is the experience of RNs who leave clinical nursing?† It is not concise because the information to be collected through this question will not be in line with the purpose of the study and hence more concise

Believe and Culture Build Awareness Research Paper

Believe and Culture Build Awareness - Research Paper Example However, despite this seemingly important trend, many other security concerns are also emerging, which threatens the effective use of these technologies (Erickson 2008). This paper examines some of the challenges being associated with the process of establishing firm security systems in individual and corporate information systems. According to Scambray & McClure (2001), hacking can be described as the unauthorized entry into a person’s information database online. In the need for creating and using technology as a leveraging point for organizational effectiveness, individuals and organisations have developed websites and other online databases where they develop and store their confidential information. In this regard, the information is supposed to be kept away from the reach of unauthorized persons. In order to ensure that this information is secured safely, it is often expected that one uses effective and reliable passwords among other important approaches that can ensure that this information is safely secured (Scambray & McClure 2001). Additionally, the process of hosting these websites is supposed to be done on secure networks, which ensure that hackers and other malicious attackers do not gain entry into these information systems. Just like in normal aspects of life, intruding into someone’s physical space without his/her permission or context amounts to security threat. Culturally, it is important that one seeks permission before entry into a house or an office, in the same way, hacking can be seen to be violating the cultural ties that concern respect for one’s space and freedom. In all societies across the world, good mannerism involves several subsets including observing and respecting people’s physical space among others. In the same way, the development of online systems like websites and social sites is supposed to incorporate this important security concern. Across the world, many issues have so far been raised about the

Case Study of Personal Constructs Theory (PCT)

Case Study of Personal Constructs Theory (PCT) Title/Abstract In this study we aim to provide an analysis of a subjects problems using the Personal Constructs Theory (PCT) suggested by Kelly. The subject is a 35 year old female full time employee working in the same company as the researcher and has shown no barriers to construing. The subjects problems with her relationships have been determined using the Repertory grid interview and we discuss results and provide an analysis of the findings following the interview and data collection. The interview was done to identify elements within the clients relationships and all interview limitations have been considered for the study. We provide an analysis of Personal Constructs Theory in general giving a brief overview of its main premises and principles and then move on to its applications including the Grid interview technique on our client. We discuss the results and analyse the findings accordingly. Introduction George Kellys Personal Construct Theory (PCT) emphasises that the world is perceived by a person according to the meaning the person applies to it and the person has the freedom to choose a meaning according to what he or she wants (Kelly, 1955). Thus a person has the freedom to choose a meaning in terms of which he perceives the world and can apply alternative constructions or meanings to his past, present and future events. Thus a person is not a victim of his events but can liberate himself from unpleasant events by reinterpreting and redefining them. According to Kelly (1955) PCT attempts to explain why a man does what he does and is a theory about how the human process flows, how it strives in new directions as well as in old, and how it may dare for the first time to reach into the depths of newly perceived dimensions Kelly states that a persons processes are psychologically channelized by the ways in which he anticipate the events'(1955). Here, the subject is the process and the individual is a behaving organism who may need an external force to initiate an event. The processes include those of self-definition and relationships with others, and how we interpret events around us as well as the events we perceive and tasks at hand (Kelly 1955). Kelly based his theory of PCT on man as the scientist model and the basic points were as follows: the individual creates his or her own ways of seeing the world and interprets events according to how he perceive them the individual builds percepts and constructs; these constructs are organized into systems, or group of constructs which embody relationships; two or more systems may contain the same events, yet the events are separate from any of the systems; any individuals systems have a definite foci The term construct is a concept that represents the view a person has constructed about the world as he experiences it. Constructs also represent the way a person is likely to construe the world and the construct system as a whole represents the history and predisposition to perceive the world in a particular way. Kelly also distinguished between social reality, individual reality and communality. Individuality denotes that every individual differ from each other in how they construct or perceive the world, communality refers to the underlying similarities or common elements in perception and how the construction of experience in one person is similar to that of another (Kelly, 1955). Social reality is perception of how one person construes the construction processes of another person and how they are involved in a social role. Personal construct theory has been used in several sociological and scientific disciplines and it has been emphasised that social reality and communality should be considered along with the individual or personal reality and both have to be considered together in developing an understanding of the psychological processes (Dalton, 1992). The theory of Personal Constructs, points out that it is our personal psychological constructs that make the world predictable. We use construct systems to help in perception of the world and respond to all situations according to these perceptions. Our construct systems help us to make sense of the world, to make it predictable, to draw conclusions about causes and effects and we learn from experiences and adjust our behaviour accordingly (Fransella, 1995). Kelly wrote that the construct systems influence our expectations and perceptions and reflect our past experiences according to which we shape our future expectations. For example since we known from our past experiences that winters are cold, we would take adequate measures of protection during winter because we expect winters to be cold. However according to Kelly, our construct systems grow and change and are not static and are either confirmed or challenged when we are conscious. We adapt and immunise our constructs according to the situation and alter our feelings according to our experiences. We also tend to think and react according to our construct systems and some constructs represent values and key relationships which are difficult to change and fixed whereas some other constructs are less complex and more flexible and adaptive. The truth about the world as understood and experienced determines the nature of the construct system. Construct systems are not generally judged according to any objective truth and depend on an individuals personal feelings, perceptions and choices (Dalton, 1992). One individuals construct system may be different from anothers and when there is a general disagreement in constructs, it is generally denoted by prejudice or preconception. Although conflicts and differences of opinions are unpleasant, these events help us to understand differences in people and help us to learn how other people perceive things (Stevens, 1996). However construct systems change and may not be altogether internally consistent. People may react or perceive things differently even in similar circumstances and this is normal as there is a certain degree of internal inconsistency in perception of events. Distortions of judgement due to internal inconsistency of personal constructs can be harmful for a person as he may suffer from personal distress. The extent to which one person can appreciate and react to another persons constructs is a measure of empathy or how one perceives another (Banister, 1985). One persons construct system may be markedly different from another p ersons constructs yet one should be able to infer the other persons construct in order to empathise and develop a sense of social oneness and responsibility. Kellys theory is one of the most effective theories in social research and helps to provide a psychological explanation of social similarities and differences. The applications of Kellys theory of Personal constructs are wide and varied as it helps to provide mathematical representations of constructs systems. Construct systems are multidimensional mathematical models and a persons language is used to classify his or her experiences. Kelly developed a number of mathematical models and representations of construct systems and tested hypotheses that followed from basic personal construct theory (Fransella and Bannister, 1977). To understand peoples personal construct systems the repertory Grid Interview technique was developed, also known as the Role Construct Repertory Test. The repertoire of constructs that a person develops represents some form of perception, judgement or evaluation and is always comparative. Thus judgement of anything good is in comparison with the concept of bad. Thus in using a Grid interview three elements are considered and then two are paired in contrast with a third. The theory of personal constructs can be applied to personal experiences and relationships and so parents, relations, friends, colleagues and the individual are largely responsible for the formation of constructs (Smith et al, 1995; Kalekin-Fishman et al, 1996). Kelly elicited a patients constructs, rated the different elements on the constructs and used the resultant grid to point out to the client what his primary problems or concerns were. This helped to decide which therapy would be important and helped to determine the progress and effectiveness of therapy. For example one could find the two elements in a personal relationship of a patient and his mother and use this technique to find out differences between a patients perception of himself and what his mother would like him to be. The patient would then be encouraged to provide a self description and work through means of making his relationship with his mother more pleasant and productive. If there are paranoid elements recognised in a patients perception of himself or his relationships, appropriate therapeutic interventions are suggested. The Repertory Grid interviewing technique was developed by Kelly to overcome some of the methodological limitations of the interview method. The main steps of the Grid technique include 1. Selecting a set of elements – this could be anything from relationships to issues and the elements could be people involved in these relationships with the client. 2. The elements are taken in groups of three and the client is asked to pair two of them separating the third according to a special characteristic (Adams-Webber, 1983). Thus here the differentiation is done according to constructs determined by the client and is done on a bipolar scale with the interviewer setting up the question but the client determining the content (Anderson, 1987). The constructs are examined in some detail and after the interview the constructs are made into scales of 1-5 and the interviewee is expected to rate every element for every construct on this scale. The result is a matrix and this is then analysed statistically to show the client his problems and how they can be tackled. The statistical analysis helps to give measurements of individual people characteristics and compares peoples perceptions before and after the interview. The Grid is thus a statistical, and content free process and although the interviewer initiates its functions, it is the patient who drives it allowing him to come out with his own perceptions thus giving the process a freedom from any interviewer bias and allows complete transparency(Anderson, 1987). Since it is also a standardised interviewing technique any interviewer can read the interview and understand its implications. Russell and Cox (2003) and Morrison (1991) have stressed on the importance of repertory grid in the analysis of individual perceptions. Considering Kellys constructivist alternativism, we can assume that all our present perceptions of the world could be subject to changes and revisions and accordingly our perceptions of people and subsequently our interpersonal relationships could also be changed according to this principle. Method A 35 year old female colleague, Marie Oliver was selected for the interview process. The client was having some relationship problems, especially with her work colleagues and has been showing maladjustment along with problems of anxiety, depression and lack of productivity at work. The participant was apprised of the purpose of the interviewing and was asked to participate suggesting that participation in the interview would help her in overcoming her personal problems. A Repertory Grid Interview was done and the first step was identifying elements or grid components. For this all the possible elements including people in relationships were identified. Thus elements are work colleagues known to the participant and to the researcher, and the participant used triad method with the elements to create constructs around any one chosen topic. Elements were then compared by asking participant to take 3 elements and ascertain where 2 are similar and 1 is different, and the participant was en couraged to continue until all possible combinations were exhausted of 3 elements from the set of 10. The instruction given in this case was , choose any three of these known people and group two of them together separating a possible third to show why two of them are similar and how they differ from the third person. This process was used to identify similarities and differences of individuals until the participant ran out of constructs. Several mini-grids were developed in advance to ensure that the participant was comfortable with the process of grid construction. Then the Participant followed the process, generated the first grid, to ascertain whether each element is more like the similarity pole or difference pole by marking with x or o respectively. The participant then generated a second grid to rate each element on each of the 10 constructs using 1-5 point scale, but presented the grid to experimenter without ratings, experimenter then created the final grid as the participant. The main aim and purpose of the interview was agreed with the participant and views about other work colleagues were thus taken. The participant was fully informed from outset regarding the possibility that the revelations from the Grid Interview could be unsettling for her. However for these purposes, participants consent form was also signed in advance and the constructs were then set up on the grid allowing to be revealed. In the process of the interview, the researcher made notes on participant behaviour and perceptions as verbally revealed. In this case, the participant Marie was asked to identify the elements in her workplace that could be considered in her relationships with colleagues. Marie identified 10 colleagues at her workplace and separated two of them as distinct from a third. The common points and the differences were noted. Each of the 10 constructs chosen were rated on a 1-5 scale and the grids were created with similarity and difference poles marked by x or an o. This was done in case of determining constructs and relationships with work colleagues. After the formation of a grid, an analysis was drawn up. Findings/Analysis The two assumptions of the Grid Interview by Kelly were as follows: 1. If we can identify an individuals construct map there is a strong possibility we can predict that individuals behaviour. 2. We may be able to modify an individuals map, and therefore behaviour, by some form of training. The two aspects of the Repertory Grid are 1. Elements which are the objects of an individuals thinking and to which they relate their concepts or values. These elements may be people with qualities like effective, unprofessional, etc or they may be objects or abstract, concrete concepts like the interview or a test 2. Constructs are the qualities used to describe the elements in our personal, individual relationships thus a person is effective because he has a pleasant relationship with his staff which reflects personal construct as applied to the element of an effective individual The main elements in an analysis when a grid is applied to an individual are: 1. The results relate to that individual alone 2. Only one grid has to be analysed for an individuals report. 3. A grid scoring form is used to perform the analysis The Findings and Analysis help us to probe the following questions: To what extent was the study helpful in understanding the participants view of the topic of examination? Identification and justification of apparent areas of understanding and lack of understanding Is a pattern of understanding evident? How does the analysis link with the notes made prior to completing grids on expected areas of degree of understanding? What is the meaning revealed by the participants choice of elements and constructs? Do the elements and constructs reveal a similar or different view of the topic of analysis chosen? What does the degree of the match imply? Was the study any more helpful when conversation elaboration was also used as an extended method? Is some analysis of new understandings reached during feedback conversation helpful for the process? What do the notes and quotes as revealed by the client suggest? The findings are given as follows: Degree of similarity Elements (Mostly worked together with these individuals) Close agreement on 4, 5, 6 – elements Less agreement on 9 – element (Mostly worked separately with these individuals) Little agreement on 1,2,3,7,8,10- elements with different negative personal experiences working with E7 and E8 on particular projects. Degree of similarity – Constructs Close agreement on 6 – constructs (professional conduct). Upon discussion, views were similar regarding the meaning of professional conduct and who could be trusted. Less agreement on 1,3,4,5,7,9 – constructs. Upon discussion, researcher and client shared similar/same definitions of each construct. Differences in definitions regarding Constructs Little agreement on 2,8,10 constructs. Upon discussion, our definitions were different, hence our measurement of each element came from a different understanding of constructs. The elements identified by Marie were individuals at the workplace and Marie revealed that she worked closely with elements 4, 5 and 6 although had less agreement with element or colleague 9. Marie revealed that she has worked separately and had negative personal experiences with colleagues identified as elements 1, 2, 3, 7, 8 and 10 although she said she was working on the same project with two of these negatively perceived colleagues 7 and 8. Mari suggested a close agreement with 6 on professional conduct and said that her views with 6 were similar regarding professional conduct, friendships and trust issues as to who in the office should or should not be trusted. Marie suggested that her constructs were either in contrast to or were not compatible with those of 1, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 9 elements or colleagues identified. Marie and the researcher had some discussions on the nature and definition of particular perceptions and constructs and the general definition of these identified by th e researcher were similar to that of the subject. The subjects perceptions, feedback and opinions on the constructs were noted separately. Marie identified that two of the colleagues were friendly and amicable and compared with the other person who in contrast has been described as unfriendly and not easy to get along with. The Repertory Grid Scoring sheet is drawn as follows: Pairs similarities 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 empathy Work culture attitude friendliness knowledgeable Team orientedness Good style appearance leadership helpfulness The process of producing the Repertory Grid can be broken down into the following steps: Step One The participant Marie identifies ten colleagues whom she knows well. Among these ten colleagues Marie should go along well with at least two of them ideally. Step Two – Marie is given six pieces of card or paper on which she is asked to write the names of the people she has identified. These are the elements described. A number can also be added to the card/paper to signify description and added at the head of column on the scoring sheet. Alternatively, the name itself of the element identified can be entered on the scoring sheet as well. Step Three – Three cards are selected, for example 1, 2 and 3, and Marie is asked to identify some aspect related to these colleagues behaviour which makes two of the three people selected different from the third. The construct word or phrase is written in the top left side of the vertical columns. In the top right side of the vertical columns is written the description of the person one who is different from the other two. This process of obtaining constructs from the three people is continued until no further constructs or perceived characteristics could be elicited from the participant. Step Four – Once the constructs have been completely elicited and entered on the scoresheet, the cards are returned. Each element person is then given a score on a scale of 1 to 5. A score of 1 or 2 is allocated to those who are suited to the description in the left-hand column, the column with the description of the pair. Scores of 5 or 4 are allocated to those who match with the description in the right-hand column, the description of the odd person out Step Five – A different set of three cards is then selected, cards 4, 5 and 6 and the process in steps 3 and 4 is repeated, ensuring that the description of pairs is recorded in the left-hand column and a score of 1 or 2 relates to the pairs similarity and score points of 4 and 5 relate to the description of the single person. A score of 3 is average score. A score of at least one 1 and one 5 is helpful when allocated usually from the set of three people for whom the constructs are being elicited. Step Six – Step five is repeated and the various combinations of the elements are aimed to be covered until the participants run out of perceived characteristics or constructs that could be entered on the card. After the grid consideration, the grid scoring sheet is used to record the views of the participant for each element against each construct which has been offered. The data collected is then subject to analysis. A manual analysis can generate and extract considerable information from the grid and all the constructs are related to the personal characteristics of each work colleague considered in the study by Marie. Step Seven – In this case study we consider the behavioural aspects of work colleagues of Marie which is related to their overall friendliness, therefore at the end of the grid Marie is asked to rate the elements in a single, given construct over a scale of friendly to unfriendly. The scoring for friendliness is then compared with other individual aspects to highlight differences and to provide indicators for friendliness. Step Eight – The scores for each construct are obtained by marking the difference for each element against the general friendliness figure. Step Nine – In this phase, we analyse the various constructs on the basis that if the score is low the aspect measured is significant in the ranking for friendliness It is the duty of interviewer to remain without any bias and to refrain from giving any suggestion to the participant on what constructs should be drawn. Forming the constructs is entirely dependent on the participant and the researcher has no role in its formation. They must be according to the thoughts and perceptions of the individual who is being interviewed in this case, Marie although the constructs must be clear, meaningful. Here the analyst has helped her in one or two cases when she couldnt describe the construct and sought help of the analyst to come out with the right word. After the constructs are listed against the elements, the grid results are scored and are ready to be used for analysis. From the example used in this study -the aspects which go towards the behavioural skills of colleague at work, are identified as follows: Has empathy with other colleagues Has a proper work culture and attitude Has an ethical sense Is friendly and amicable Is knowledgeable and professional Always has a good style and appearance Is a team oriented person Is a leader in the group Comes out with fresh new ideas Is helpful and cooperative Discussion In this study we selected Marie Oliver, a 35 year old colleague who was suffering from some initial maladjustment in the workplace. Marie was asked to participate in the Repertory Grid Interview process to identify the reasons of her problems, categorise them and come out with possible suggestions. The approach taken was qualitative analysis by using the Personal Constructs theory developed by Kelly and a final analysis using scoring sheet and identifying elements through the Repertory Grid Interview technique. Marie was asked to select characteristics and constructs of persons in her workplace. She identified the most desirable and friendly characteristics in her colleagues against the least desirable ones. The notes taken during conversation with Marie reveal that Marie felt she got along only with a few colleagues only three as mentioned. There were basic differences in professional ethic and conduct with at least two colleagues she was working in collaboration with. The behavioural skills Marie identified as important in defining her good relationship with the colleagues are empathic characteristics in others; any concept of an ideal colleague is also associated with being able to follow a proper work culture and having a proper attitude. Having an ethical sense, a sense of justice and being knowledgeable, professional with a good sense of humour are also identified as important characteristics in a proper friendly colleague. Marie indicated that being friendly, amicable and with good style and appearance has been noted in at least two of her colleagues and this is stark contrast to a third colleague she identified and with whom she doesnt seem to get along. If we consider Kellys perspective of constructive alternativism, it is possible to have alternative perceptions as our perceptions of the world depend completely on our personal constructs. Marie also identified leadership skills, helpfulness and cooperativeness, being able to come out with fresh ideas and following a proper work culture as important aspects of professional behaviour and gave high scores on these aspects to at least two of her colleagues. Overall, a Repertory Grid Interview on Marie showed that she has good and easygoing relations with two of her colleagues but doesnt seem to go well with many of them. The negative implications of the findings which suggest why Marie did not get along with most of her colleagues and seem to show anxiety and depression symptoms as well as dissatisfaction with her workplace were revealed in her perception of constructs on most of her colleagues. Marie suggested that some of her colleagues were low on cooperativeness and helpfulness, friendliness and proper professional attitude making the atmosphere competitive and hostile. The dynamics of Maries actual relations with her colleagues were thus revealed using this Grid interviewing procedure and Maries own perception of her work situation, perception of her situation and role in the office, and perception of her relations with her colleagues and her job were also revealed through this study. As Morrison (1991) used the repertory grid technique to understand nurses perception of care and their evaluation of caring attitudes in nursing, Maries perception of her work culture could easily reveal her ideal understanding of a workplace and what she sought in her colleagues. Her inner constructs, precepts and how she saw the world as an individual were revealed and so were her expectations in the future. Considering Maries perceptions, some psychological counselling to improve her working and professional relationships was recommended. Limitations: The methodological limitations and concerns of interview as a means of knowing peoples construct system were many, as noted by Kelly. These are: 1. Interview Bias – sometimes the interviewer and the school he belongs to whether behaviourist or psychoanalytic could determine the way the session goes and this undermines the objectivity and validity of the study 2. Dependence on the interviewer – the role of the therapist should be minimal and the therapist should just be a tool to facilitate self perception according to Kelly. Most individuals have the capacity to understand his or her problems and any overdependence on the researcher should be avoided. 3. There may be problems with measuring and predicting individual or group characteristics. Although psychology seeks to understand laws of human behaviour, large scale studies showing correlations of different behaviour may not be helpful for study of personal constructs which is based on the understanding of individuals or a small group of people. These methodological limitations have been kept in mind while conducting the interview and interviewer bias and any dependence on the interviewer has been kept to a minimum. Interviewer intervention has also been minimal. Conclusion: In this discussion, we set out with an overview of the Personal Constructs Theory proposed by Kelly (1955). We discussed the different tenets of the constructs theory, the inconsistency of personal constructs and how constructs tend to vary in different people or in same people in different situations. Thus situational factors seem important in constructs and perceptions on other people. Individual constructs form the construct systems and Kelly established the grid method to determine the different elements in a social situation that can be considered as responsible for an individuals disturbed social relationships. In our study of Marie Oliver, a 35 year old employee, her social relationships and possible disturbances were studied using the Repertory Grid Interview technique and her analysis of good and bad characteristics of ten of her colleagues were indicated on the card given to her. The scores were drawn up and according to the analysis the desirable characteristics that Marie perceived in some of her workmates and not in others, were found out. Maries behavioural problems and her unique relationships with her colleagues are then analysed suggesting whether Marie needed any further psychological help for her anxiety, depression and other work related maladjustments. Bibliography Kelly, George Alexander The psychology of personal constructs / George A. Kelly. London : Routledge in association with Centre for Personal Construct Psychology,London, 1991, c1955. Dalton, Peggy. A psychology for living : personal construct theory for professionals and clients / Peggy Dalton and Gavin Dunnett. Chichester : J. Wiley Sons, 1992. University of London. An application of personal construct theory (Kelly) to schizoid thinking. University of London, 1959. Fransella, Fay. George Kelly / Fay Fransella. London : Sage, 1995. Anderson, N. Personality assessment in the graduate milkround interview : A personal construct psychology perspective and study using repertory grid technique. Birmingham : University of Aston Management Centre, 1987. Fransella. F, Bannister. D. 1977. A Manual for Repertory grid technique. Academic Press. London. Bannister, P et al. (1994) Qualitative Methods in Psychology Buckingham: Open University Press. Bannister, D. (1985) (Ed) Issues and approaches in personal construct theory London: Academic Press, 1985 Stevens, R (1996) Understanding the Self London: Open University Sage. Kalekin-Fishman, Devorah. and Walker, Beverley. (1996) The Construction of Group Realities: culture, society and personal construct theory. Malabar: Krieger. Bannister, D. Mair, J. (1968) The Evaluation of Personal Constructs London: Academic Press Smith JA, Harre R, Van Langenhove (1995) Rethinking Methods in Psychology London: Sage. Jack Adams-Webber (Editor) (1983) Applications of Personal Construct Theory Academic Press. The emergence of new intentions in subjective experience: A social/personal constructionist and relational understanding Journal of Vocational Behavior, Volume 64, Issue 3, June 2004, Pages 485-498 Mary Sue Richardson Per Case Study of Personal Constructs Theory (PCT) Case Study of Personal Constructs Theory (PCT) Title/Abstract In this study we aim to provide an analysis of a subjects problems using the Personal Constructs Theory (PCT) suggested by Kelly. The subject is a 35 year old female full time employee working in the same company as the researcher and has shown no barriers to construing. The subjects problems with her relationships have been determined using the Repertory grid interview and we discuss results and provide an analysis of the findings following the interview and data collection. The interview was done to identify elements within the clients relationships and all interview limitations have been considered for the study. We provide an analysis of Personal Constructs Theory in general giving a brief overview of its main premises and principles and then move on to its applications including the Grid interview technique on our client. We discuss the results and analyse the findings accordingly. Introduction George Kellys Personal Construct Theory (PCT) emphasises that the world is perceived by a person according to the meaning the person applies to it and the person has the freedom to choose a meaning according to what he or she wants (Kelly, 1955). Thus a person has the freedom to choose a meaning in terms of which he perceives the world and can apply alternative constructions or meanings to his past, present and future events. Thus a person is not a victim of his events but can liberate himself from unpleasant events by reinterpreting and redefining them. According to Kelly (1955) PCT attempts to explain why a man does what he does and is a theory about how the human process flows, how it strives in new directions as well as in old, and how it may dare for the first time to reach into the depths of newly perceived dimensions Kelly states that a persons processes are psychologically channelized by the ways in which he anticipate the events'(1955). Here, the subject is the process and the individual is a behaving organism who may need an external force to initiate an event. The processes include those of self-definition and relationships with others, and how we interpret events around us as well as the events we perceive and tasks at hand (Kelly 1955). Kelly based his theory of PCT on man as the scientist model and the basic points were as follows: the individual creates his or her own ways of seeing the world and interprets events according to how he perceive them the individual builds percepts and constructs; these constructs are organized into systems, or group of constructs which embody relationships; two or more systems may contain the same events, yet the events are separate from any of the systems; any individuals systems have a definite foci The term construct is a concept that represents the view a person has constructed about the world as he experiences it. Constructs also represent the way a person is likely to construe the world and the construct system as a whole represents the history and predisposition to perceive the world in a particular way. Kelly also distinguished between social reality, individual reality and communality. Individuality denotes that every individual differ from each other in how they construct or perceive the world, communality refers to the underlying similarities or common elements in perception and how the construction of experience in one person is similar to that of another (Kelly, 1955). Social reality is perception of how one person construes the construction processes of another person and how they are involved in a social role. Personal construct theory has been used in several sociological and scientific disciplines and it has been emphasised that social reality and communality should be considered along with the individual or personal reality and both have to be considered together in developing an understanding of the psychological processes (Dalton, 1992). The theory of Personal Constructs, points out that it is our personal psychological constructs that make the world predictable. We use construct systems to help in perception of the world and respond to all situations according to these perceptions. Our construct systems help us to make sense of the world, to make it predictable, to draw conclusions about causes and effects and we learn from experiences and adjust our behaviour accordingly (Fransella, 1995). Kelly wrote that the construct systems influence our expectations and perceptions and reflect our past experiences according to which we shape our future expectations. For example since we known from our past experiences that winters are cold, we would take adequate measures of protection during winter because we expect winters to be cold. However according to Kelly, our construct systems grow and change and are not static and are either confirmed or challenged when we are conscious. We adapt and immunise our constructs according to the situation and alter our feelings according to our experiences. We also tend to think and react according to our construct systems and some constructs represent values and key relationships which are difficult to change and fixed whereas some other constructs are less complex and more flexible and adaptive. The truth about the world as understood and experienced determines the nature of the construct system. Construct systems are not generally judged according to any objective truth and depend on an individuals personal feelings, perceptions and choices (Dalton, 1992). One individuals construct system may be different from anothers and when there is a general disagreement in constructs, it is generally denoted by prejudice or preconception. Although conflicts and differences of opinions are unpleasant, these events help us to understand differences in people and help us to learn how other people perceive things (Stevens, 1996). However construct systems change and may not be altogether internally consistent. People may react or perceive things differently even in similar circumstances and this is normal as there is a certain degree of internal inconsistency in perception of events. Distortions of judgement due to internal inconsistency of personal constructs can be harmful for a person as he may suffer from personal distress. The extent to which one person can appreciate and react to another persons constructs is a measure of empathy or how one perceives another (Banister, 1985). One persons construct system may be markedly different from another p ersons constructs yet one should be able to infer the other persons construct in order to empathise and develop a sense of social oneness and responsibility. Kellys theory is one of the most effective theories in social research and helps to provide a psychological explanation of social similarities and differences. The applications of Kellys theory of Personal constructs are wide and varied as it helps to provide mathematical representations of constructs systems. Construct systems are multidimensional mathematical models and a persons language is used to classify his or her experiences. Kelly developed a number of mathematical models and representations of construct systems and tested hypotheses that followed from basic personal construct theory (Fransella and Bannister, 1977). To understand peoples personal construct systems the repertory Grid Interview technique was developed, also known as the Role Construct Repertory Test. The repertoire of constructs that a person develops represents some form of perception, judgement or evaluation and is always comparative. Thus judgement of anything good is in comparison with the concept of bad. Thus in using a Grid interview three elements are considered and then two are paired in contrast with a third. The theory of personal constructs can be applied to personal experiences and relationships and so parents, relations, friends, colleagues and the individual are largely responsible for the formation of constructs (Smith et al, 1995; Kalekin-Fishman et al, 1996). Kelly elicited a patients constructs, rated the different elements on the constructs and used the resultant grid to point out to the client what his primary problems or concerns were. This helped to decide which therapy would be important and helped to determine the progress and effectiveness of therapy. For example one could find the two elements in a personal relationship of a patient and his mother and use this technique to find out differences between a patients perception of himself and what his mother would like him to be. The patient would then be encouraged to provide a self description and work through means of making his relationship with his mother more pleasant and productive. If there are paranoid elements recognised in a patients perception of himself or his relationships, appropriate therapeutic interventions are suggested. The Repertory Grid interviewing technique was developed by Kelly to overcome some of the methodological limitations of the interview method. The main steps of the Grid technique include 1. Selecting a set of elements – this could be anything from relationships to issues and the elements could be people involved in these relationships with the client. 2. The elements are taken in groups of three and the client is asked to pair two of them separating the third according to a special characteristic (Adams-Webber, 1983). Thus here the differentiation is done according to constructs determined by the client and is done on a bipolar scale with the interviewer setting up the question but the client determining the content (Anderson, 1987). The constructs are examined in some detail and after the interview the constructs are made into scales of 1-5 and the interviewee is expected to rate every element for every construct on this scale. The result is a matrix and this is then analysed statistically to show the client his problems and how they can be tackled. The statistical analysis helps to give measurements of individual people characteristics and compares peoples perceptions before and after the interview. The Grid is thus a statistical, and content free process and although the interviewer initiates its functions, it is the patient who drives it allowing him to come out with his own perceptions thus giving the process a freedom from any interviewer bias and allows complete transparency(Anderson, 1987). Since it is also a standardised interviewing technique any interviewer can read the interview and understand its implications. Russell and Cox (2003) and Morrison (1991) have stressed on the importance of repertory grid in the analysis of individual perceptions. Considering Kellys constructivist alternativism, we can assume that all our present perceptions of the world could be subject to changes and revisions and accordingly our perceptions of people and subsequently our interpersonal relationships could also be changed according to this principle. Method A 35 year old female colleague, Marie Oliver was selected for the interview process. The client was having some relationship problems, especially with her work colleagues and has been showing maladjustment along with problems of anxiety, depression and lack of productivity at work. The participant was apprised of the purpose of the interviewing and was asked to participate suggesting that participation in the interview would help her in overcoming her personal problems. A Repertory Grid Interview was done and the first step was identifying elements or grid components. For this all the possible elements including people in relationships were identified. Thus elements are work colleagues known to the participant and to the researcher, and the participant used triad method with the elements to create constructs around any one chosen topic. Elements were then compared by asking participant to take 3 elements and ascertain where 2 are similar and 1 is different, and the participant was en couraged to continue until all possible combinations were exhausted of 3 elements from the set of 10. The instruction given in this case was , choose any three of these known people and group two of them together separating a possible third to show why two of them are similar and how they differ from the third person. This process was used to identify similarities and differences of individuals until the participant ran out of constructs. Several mini-grids were developed in advance to ensure that the participant was comfortable with the process of grid construction. Then the Participant followed the process, generated the first grid, to ascertain whether each element is more like the similarity pole or difference pole by marking with x or o respectively. The participant then generated a second grid to rate each element on each of the 10 constructs using 1-5 point scale, but presented the grid to experimenter without ratings, experimenter then created the final grid as the participant. The main aim and purpose of the interview was agreed with the participant and views about other work colleagues were thus taken. The participant was fully informed from outset regarding the possibility that the revelations from the Grid Interview could be unsettling for her. However for these purposes, participants consent form was also signed in advance and the constructs were then set up on the grid allowing to be revealed. In the process of the interview, the researcher made notes on participant behaviour and perceptions as verbally revealed. In this case, the participant Marie was asked to identify the elements in her workplace that could be considered in her relationships with colleagues. Marie identified 10 colleagues at her workplace and separated two of them as distinct from a third. The common points and the differences were noted. Each of the 10 constructs chosen were rated on a 1-5 scale and the grids were created with similarity and difference poles marked by x or an o. This was done in case of determining constructs and relationships with work colleagues. After the formation of a grid, an analysis was drawn up. Findings/Analysis The two assumptions of the Grid Interview by Kelly were as follows: 1. If we can identify an individuals construct map there is a strong possibility we can predict that individuals behaviour. 2. We may be able to modify an individuals map, and therefore behaviour, by some form of training. The two aspects of the Repertory Grid are 1. Elements which are the objects of an individuals thinking and to which they relate their concepts or values. These elements may be people with qualities like effective, unprofessional, etc or they may be objects or abstract, concrete concepts like the interview or a test 2. Constructs are the qualities used to describe the elements in our personal, individual relationships thus a person is effective because he has a pleasant relationship with his staff which reflects personal construct as applied to the element of an effective individual The main elements in an analysis when a grid is applied to an individual are: 1. The results relate to that individual alone 2. Only one grid has to be analysed for an individuals report. 3. A grid scoring form is used to perform the analysis The Findings and Analysis help us to probe the following questions: To what extent was the study helpful in understanding the participants view of the topic of examination? Identification and justification of apparent areas of understanding and lack of understanding Is a pattern of understanding evident? How does the analysis link with the notes made prior to completing grids on expected areas of degree of understanding? What is the meaning revealed by the participants choice of elements and constructs? Do the elements and constructs reveal a similar or different view of the topic of analysis chosen? What does the degree of the match imply? Was the study any more helpful when conversation elaboration was also used as an extended method? Is some analysis of new understandings reached during feedback conversation helpful for the process? What do the notes and quotes as revealed by the client suggest? The findings are given as follows: Degree of similarity Elements (Mostly worked together with these individuals) Close agreement on 4, 5, 6 – elements Less agreement on 9 – element (Mostly worked separately with these individuals) Little agreement on 1,2,3,7,8,10- elements with different negative personal experiences working with E7 and E8 on particular projects. Degree of similarity – Constructs Close agreement on 6 – constructs (professional conduct). Upon discussion, views were similar regarding the meaning of professional conduct and who could be trusted. Less agreement on 1,3,4,5,7,9 – constructs. Upon discussion, researcher and client shared similar/same definitions of each construct. Differences in definitions regarding Constructs Little agreement on 2,8,10 constructs. Upon discussion, our definitions were different, hence our measurement of each element came from a different understanding of constructs. The elements identified by Marie were individuals at the workplace and Marie revealed that she worked closely with elements 4, 5 and 6 although had less agreement with element or colleague 9. Marie revealed that she has worked separately and had negative personal experiences with colleagues identified as elements 1, 2, 3, 7, 8 and 10 although she said she was working on the same project with two of these negatively perceived colleagues 7 and 8. Mari suggested a close agreement with 6 on professional conduct and said that her views with 6 were similar regarding professional conduct, friendships and trust issues as to who in the office should or should not be trusted. Marie suggested that her constructs were either in contrast to or were not compatible with those of 1, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 9 elements or colleagues identified. Marie and the researcher had some discussions on the nature and definition of particular perceptions and constructs and the general definition of these identified by th e researcher were similar to that of the subject. The subjects perceptions, feedback and opinions on the constructs were noted separately. Marie identified that two of the colleagues were friendly and amicable and compared with the other person who in contrast has been described as unfriendly and not easy to get along with. The Repertory Grid Scoring sheet is drawn as follows: Pairs similarities 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 empathy Work culture attitude friendliness knowledgeable Team orientedness Good style appearance leadership helpfulness The process of producing the Repertory Grid can be broken down into the following steps: Step One The participant Marie identifies ten colleagues whom she knows well. Among these ten colleagues Marie should go along well with at least two of them ideally. Step Two – Marie is given six pieces of card or paper on which she is asked to write the names of the people she has identified. These are the elements described. A number can also be added to the card/paper to signify description and added at the head of column on the scoring sheet. Alternatively, the name itself of the element identified can be entered on the scoring sheet as well. Step Three – Three cards are selected, for example 1, 2 and 3, and Marie is asked to identify some aspect related to these colleagues behaviour which makes two of the three people selected different from the third. The construct word or phrase is written in the top left side of the vertical columns. In the top right side of the vertical columns is written the description of the person one who is different from the other two. This process of obtaining constructs from the three people is continued until no further constructs or perceived characteristics could be elicited from the participant. Step Four – Once the constructs have been completely elicited and entered on the scoresheet, the cards are returned. Each element person is then given a score on a scale of 1 to 5. A score of 1 or 2 is allocated to those who are suited to the description in the left-hand column, the column with the description of the pair. Scores of 5 or 4 are allocated to those who match with the description in the right-hand column, the description of the odd person out Step Five – A different set of three cards is then selected, cards 4, 5 and 6 and the process in steps 3 and 4 is repeated, ensuring that the description of pairs is recorded in the left-hand column and a score of 1 or 2 relates to the pairs similarity and score points of 4 and 5 relate to the description of the single person. A score of 3 is average score. A score of at least one 1 and one 5 is helpful when allocated usually from the set of three people for whom the constructs are being elicited. Step Six – Step five is repeated and the various combinations of the elements are aimed to be covered until the participants run out of perceived characteristics or constructs that could be entered on the card. After the grid consideration, the grid scoring sheet is used to record the views of the participant for each element against each construct which has been offered. The data collected is then subject to analysis. A manual analysis can generate and extract considerable information from the grid and all the constructs are related to the personal characteristics of each work colleague considered in the study by Marie. Step Seven – In this case study we consider the behavioural aspects of work colleagues of Marie which is related to their overall friendliness, therefore at the end of the grid Marie is asked to rate the elements in a single, given construct over a scale of friendly to unfriendly. The scoring for friendliness is then compared with other individual aspects to highlight differences and to provide indicators for friendliness. Step Eight – The scores for each construct are obtained by marking the difference for each element against the general friendliness figure. Step Nine – In this phase, we analyse the various constructs on the basis that if the score is low the aspect measured is significant in the ranking for friendliness It is the duty of interviewer to remain without any bias and to refrain from giving any suggestion to the participant on what constructs should be drawn. Forming the constructs is entirely dependent on the participant and the researcher has no role in its formation. They must be according to the thoughts and perceptions of the individual who is being interviewed in this case, Marie although the constructs must be clear, meaningful. Here the analyst has helped her in one or two cases when she couldnt describe the construct and sought help of the analyst to come out with the right word. After the constructs are listed against the elements, the grid results are scored and are ready to be used for analysis. From the example used in this study -the aspects which go towards the behavioural skills of colleague at work, are identified as follows: Has empathy with other colleagues Has a proper work culture and attitude Has an ethical sense Is friendly and amicable Is knowledgeable and professional Always has a good style and appearance Is a team oriented person Is a leader in the group Comes out with fresh new ideas Is helpful and cooperative Discussion In this study we selected Marie Oliver, a 35 year old colleague who was suffering from some initial maladjustment in the workplace. Marie was asked to participate in the Repertory Grid Interview process to identify the reasons of her problems, categorise them and come out with possible suggestions. The approach taken was qualitative analysis by using the Personal Constructs theory developed by Kelly and a final analysis using scoring sheet and identifying elements through the Repertory Grid Interview technique. Marie was asked to select characteristics and constructs of persons in her workplace. She identified the most desirable and friendly characteristics in her colleagues against the least desirable ones. The notes taken during conversation with Marie reveal that Marie felt she got along only with a few colleagues only three as mentioned. There were basic differences in professional ethic and conduct with at least two colleagues she was working in collaboration with. The behavioural skills Marie identified as important in defining her good relationship with the colleagues are empathic characteristics in others; any concept of an ideal colleague is also associated with being able to follow a proper work culture and having a proper attitude. Having an ethical sense, a sense of justice and being knowledgeable, professional with a good sense of humour are also identified as important characteristics in a proper friendly colleague. Marie indicated that being friendly, amicable and with good style and appearance has been noted in at least two of her colleagues and this is stark contrast to a third colleague she identified and with whom she doesnt seem to get along. If we consider Kellys perspective of constructive alternativism, it is possible to have alternative perceptions as our perceptions of the world depend completely on our personal constructs. Marie also identified leadership skills, helpfulness and cooperativeness, being able to come out with fresh ideas and following a proper work culture as important aspects of professional behaviour and gave high scores on these aspects to at least two of her colleagues. Overall, a Repertory Grid Interview on Marie showed that she has good and easygoing relations with two of her colleagues but doesnt seem to go well with many of them. The negative implications of the findings which suggest why Marie did not get along with most of her colleagues and seem to show anxiety and depression symptoms as well as dissatisfaction with her workplace were revealed in her perception of constructs on most of her colleagues. Marie suggested that some of her colleagues were low on cooperativeness and helpfulness, friendliness and proper professional attitude making the atmosphere competitive and hostile. The dynamics of Maries actual relations with her colleagues were thus revealed using this Grid interviewing procedure and Maries own perception of her work situation, perception of her situation and role in the office, and perception of her relations with her colleagues and her job were also revealed through this study. As Morrison (1991) used the repertory grid technique to understand nurses perception of care and their evaluation of caring attitudes in nursing, Maries perception of her work culture could easily reveal her ideal understanding of a workplace and what she sought in her colleagues. Her inner constructs, precepts and how she saw the world as an individual were revealed and so were her expectations in the future. Considering Maries perceptions, some psychological counselling to improve her working and professional relationships was recommended. Limitations: The methodological limitations and concerns of interview as a means of knowing peoples construct system were many, as noted by Kelly. These are: 1. Interview Bias – sometimes the interviewer and the school he belongs to whether behaviourist or psychoanalytic could determine the way the session goes and this undermines the objectivity and validity of the study 2. Dependence on the interviewer – the role of the therapist should be minimal and the therapist should just be a tool to facilitate self perception according to Kelly. Most individuals have the capacity to understand his or her problems and any overdependence on the researcher should be avoided. 3. There may be problems with measuring and predicting individual or group characteristics. Although psychology seeks to understand laws of human behaviour, large scale studies showing correlations of different behaviour may not be helpful for study of personal constructs which is based on the understanding of individuals or a small group of people. These methodological limitations have been kept in mind while conducting the interview and interviewer bias and any dependence on the interviewer has been kept to a minimum. Interviewer intervention has also been minimal. Conclusion: In this discussion, we set out with an overview of the Personal Constructs Theory proposed by Kelly (1955). We discussed the different tenets of the constructs theory, the inconsistency of personal constructs and how constructs tend to vary in different people or in same people in different situations. Thus situational factors seem important in constructs and perceptions on other people. Individual constructs form the construct systems and Kelly established the grid method to determine the different elements in a social situation that can be considered as responsible for an individuals disturbed social relationships. In our study of Marie Oliver, a 35 year old employee, her social relationships and possible disturbances were studied using the Repertory Grid Interview technique and her analysis of good and bad characteristics of ten of her colleagues were indicated on the card given to her. The scores were drawn up and according to the analysis the desirable characteristics that Marie perceived in some of her workmates and not in others, were found out. Maries behavioural problems and her unique relationships with her colleagues are then analysed suggesting whether Marie needed any further psychological help for her anxiety, depression and other work related maladjustments. Bibliography Kelly, George Alexander The psychology of personal constructs / George A. Kelly. London : Routledge in association with Centre for Personal Construct Psychology,London, 1991, c1955. Dalton, Peggy. A psychology for living : personal construct theory for professionals and clients / Peggy Dalton and Gavin Dunnett. Chichester : J. Wiley Sons, 1992. University of London. An application of personal construct theory (Kelly) to schizoid thinking. University of London, 1959. Fransella, Fay. George Kelly / Fay Fransella. London : Sage, 1995. Anderson, N. Personality assessment in the graduate milkround interview : A personal construct psychology perspective and study using repertory grid technique. Birmingham : University of Aston Management Centre, 1987. Fransella. F, Bannister. D. 1977. A Manual for Repertory grid technique. Academic Press. London. Bannister, P et al. (1994) Qualitative Methods in Psychology Buckingham: Open University Press. Bannister, D. (1985) (Ed) Issues and approaches in personal construct theory London: Academic Press, 1985 Stevens, R (1996) Understanding the Self London: Open University Sage. Kalekin-Fishman, Devorah. and Walker, Beverley. (1996) The Construction of Group Realities: culture, society and personal construct theory. Malabar: Krieger. Bannister, D. Mair, J. (1968) The Evaluation of Personal Constructs London: Academic Press Smith JA, Harre R, Van Langenhove (1995) Rethinking Methods in Psychology London: Sage. Jack Adams-Webber (Editor) (1983) Applications of Personal Construct Theory Academic Press. The emergence of new intentions in subjective experience: A social/personal constructionist and relational understanding Journal of Vocational Behavior, Volume 64, Issue 3, June 2004, Pages 485-498 Mary Sue Richardson Per

False Memory Essay -- distorted memory, fabricated recollections

Memory is one of the most critical parts of cognition. It is important because it is involved in almost every aspect of cognition including problem solving, decision making, attention, and perception. Because of this importance, people rely on one’s memory to make important decisions. The value of one’s memory in this society is so high that it is used as evidence to either save one’s life or kill one’s life during murder trials. But as many of the cognitive psychologists know, human’s memory can cause many errors. One of these errors is false memory which is either remembering events that never happened or remembering events differently from the actual event. This finding of false memory raised big interests among psychologists and general public and many researches were done in order to find more about the false memory. The constructive approach to memory, which states that memory is constructed by person based on what really happened in addition to person’s other knowledge, experiences, and expectations, supports the idea of false memory. Just like what constructive approach to memory states, the false memory can be created by person’s knowledge, common biases, and suggestions. The present study was done in order to demonstrate one methodology that biases people to create and recall false memories. The present study is based on Deese’s experiment in 1959 and also on Roediger and McDermott’s experiment in 1995. The participants will be presented with sequence of words visually, and then they would have to classify a set of words as either in the sequence or not in the sequence. Our hypothesis is that people will create false memories and recall distractor words that are related to the sequence of words presented significantly m... ...re I think if the participants are not aware of it, the false recall rate will increase. And if there are more words presented, my assume is that it will increase the false recall rate. We can imply this finding of false memory in many ways in our lives. We all should note that our memory cannot be trusted 100% and we should not solely rely on our memory when it comes to making critical decisions. Just like the murder trial example used in earlier, when it comes to eye witnessing, the judge should take possible false memory into account when making the final decisions and try to obtain objective evidence along with the memory of the witness. Works Cited Roediger, H. L. III, & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 803-814

Discuss the Advantage and Disadvantage of Terrestrial Plant and Aquatic Plant

Student Name: Kwok Matthew Chun Wai Discuss the advantages and disadvantages for plants of living in an aqueous environment compared to a terrestrial one? Introduction: Plants are commonly classified to two main types: aquatic plant and land plant. They have different features to adapt the living environment. What by meant is that they require different adaptions to stay alive in their respective environment such as humidity and structure of leaves. Aquatic plants referred to as hydrophytes or macrophytes.They need a special adaptation to live in water or at water surfaces and the most common adaption is aerenchyma. Land plants like the name mentioned is plants that live primarily in terrestrial habitats. As they are living in different environment, there are advantages and disadvantages for living in a terrestrial environment as well as aquatic one. Photosynthesis in Aquatic Plants and Land Plants Process of producing food with light energy remains the same for both aquatic and terr estrial plants. They both require the same raw materials – carbon dioxide and water to synthesis glucose.Terrestrial plants can absorb carbon dioxide from atmospheric air and water from the soil through their roots. Obviously land plants can work through photosynthesis easily without any special adaptations. But terrestrial plants need to face a problem of abundance of water. Abundance of water: One of the three requirements of photosynthesis – water is in a sufficient amount for aquatic plants as they are submerge in water. Therefore it is easily to retain water from the surrounding for them. So the major challenge of aquatic plants is to obtain carbon dioxide and light.While terrestrial plants are mostly challenged on how to prevent water loss from evaporation and desiccation due to weather or a low humidity environment. Hence, cuticles on the upper surface of epidemics to prevent water loss are more likely to appear in terrestrial plants. Another way to deal with de siccation for land plants is to evolve roots to reach water sources deep in the ground and work as transporting vesicles. Gas Exchange: Both types of plants have each developed unique feature to work for gas xchange as availability of carbon dioxide is different in two environments. In order for land plants to access carbon dioxide in air, they must open the pores in their leaves without allowing too much water loss. So apart from cuticles, special pores called stomata allocated underside of the leaves will be closed when desiccation occur. To deal with low availability of carbon dioxide in water, aquatic plants have special gas chambers to store carbon dioxide for use during time of storage. As a result, terrestrial plants may take a geographical advantage.Absorption of Nutrient: Terrestrial Plants absorb water and other elements from soil by evolving roots to reach deep down to the ground. Comparing with aquatic plants, it is more difficult for terrestrial plants to absorb nutrien t as in liquid medium, nutrients can be found everywhere easily, and aquatic plants can absorb them directly through the leave surface. This is a challenge for land plants. Support Aquatic Plant do not affect by gravity much because of the water movement reinforce the structure of whole plant effectively. Terrestrial plants (e. g. a pine tree) invest amounts of resources in support structures (Produce starchy compounds to thicken cell wall – wood) whereas aquatic plants invest fewer resources to support. Terrestrial Plants need strong stems and woody cells structure to withstand the force of gravity that will push them down. This evidence shows that the advantage of water plants and drawback of land plant. Reproduction Aquatic plants take advantage on reproduction by simple methods. Way of aquatic plants to reproduce the next generation is releasing pollen that can float on water surface and form spores to grow into new plants.Meanwhile, land plants cannot spread pollen or se eds like aquatic plants. Wind-pollinated plants are suggested way to generate pollen from one plant to others. Seed also require a protective case. Conclusion This essay briefly tells us the different between aquatic plants and terrestrial plants. They have their own advantages and disadvantages such as terrestrial plants require evolve of roots to absorb nutrient from deep ground; plants in water require a chamber to store the gas. The structure adapted to withstand gravity for terrestrial plants. How difference between the ways of reproduction. Discuss the Advantage and Disadvantage of Terrestrial Plant and Aquatic Plant Student Name: Kwok Matthew Chun Wai Discuss the advantages and disadvantages for plants of living in an aqueous environment compared to a terrestrial one? Introduction: Plants are commonly classified to two main types: aquatic plant and land plant. They have different features to adapt the living environment. What by meant is that they require different adaptions to stay alive in their respective environment such as humidity and structure of leaves. Aquatic plants referred to as hydrophytes or macrophytes.They need a special adaptation to live in water or at water surfaces and the most common adaption is aerenchyma. Land plants like the name mentioned is plants that live primarily in terrestrial habitats. As they are living in different environment, there are advantages and disadvantages for living in a terrestrial environment as well as aquatic one. Photosynthesis in Aquatic Plants and Land Plants Process of producing food with light energy remains the same for both aquatic and terr estrial plants. They both require the same raw materials – carbon dioxide and water to synthesis glucose.Terrestrial plants can absorb carbon dioxide from atmospheric air and water from the soil through their roots. Obviously land plants can work through photosynthesis easily without any special adaptations. But terrestrial plants need to face a problem of abundance of water. Abundance of water: One of the three requirements of photosynthesis – water is in a sufficient amount for aquatic plants as they are submerge in water. Therefore it is easily to retain water from the surrounding for them. So the major challenge of aquatic plants is to obtain carbon dioxide and light.While terrestrial plants are mostly challenged on how to prevent water loss from evaporation and desiccation due to weather or a low humidity environment. Hence, cuticles on the upper surface of epidemics to prevent water loss are more likely to appear in terrestrial plants. Another way to deal with de siccation for land plants is to evolve roots to reach water sources deep in the ground and work as transporting vesicles. Gas Exchange: Both types of plants have each developed unique feature to work for gas xchange as availability of carbon dioxide is different in two environments. In order for land plants to access carbon dioxide in air, they must open the pores in their leaves without allowing too much water loss. So apart from cuticles, special pores called stomata allocated underside of the leaves will be closed when desiccation occur. To deal with low availability of carbon dioxide in water, aquatic plants have special gas chambers to store carbon dioxide for use during time of storage. As a result, terrestrial plants may take a geographical advantage.Absorption of Nutrient: Terrestrial Plants absorb water and other elements from soil by evolving roots to reach deep down to the ground. Comparing with aquatic plants, it is more difficult for terrestrial plants to absorb nutrien t as in liquid medium, nutrients can be found everywhere easily, and aquatic plants can absorb them directly through the leave surface. This is a challenge for land plants. Support Aquatic Plant do not affect by gravity much because of the water movement reinforce the structure of whole plant effectively. Terrestrial plants (e. g. a pine tree) invest amounts of resources in support structures (Produce starchy compounds to thicken cell wall – wood) whereas aquatic plants invest fewer resources to support. Terrestrial Plants need strong stems and woody cells structure to withstand the force of gravity that will push them down. This evidence shows that the advantage of water plants and drawback of land plant. Reproduction Aquatic plants take advantage on reproduction by simple methods. Way of aquatic plants to reproduce the next generation is releasing pollen that can float on water surface and form spores to grow into new plants.Meanwhile, land plants cannot spread pollen or se eds like aquatic plants. Wind-pollinated plants are suggested way to generate pollen from one plant to others. Seed also require a protective case. Conclusion This essay briefly tells us the different between aquatic plants and terrestrial plants. They have their own advantages and disadvantages such as terrestrial plants require evolve of roots to absorb nutrient from deep ground; plants in water require a chamber to store the gas. The structure adapted to withstand gravity for terrestrial plants. How difference between the ways of reproduction.

Musics impact on Life essays

Music's impact on Life essays Personal Essay In peoples life there is a point, a main focus, that causes that person to become what they are. For me that point or focus is music. To me its more than just music, and it is involved, in some way, in virtually every aspect of my life. It is also what I hope to support myself on in form or another. That is my ultimate dream. Music governs my life everyday, and not just when Im singing, playing guitar, or studying music theory. It influences my life every time I hear a song and every time I even think about music. When I wake up the first thing I do is turn on music. It starts my day and gets my brain flowing in the morning. This is an essential part of my life as I find listening to music in the morning helps calm me down whenever things get hectic during the day. Then I go to choir and vibrations, all in a row. This aspect is the only time I regret it because I have to put so much time into it, whether it be rehearsals or just sorting things out. Not to say I dont enjoy it, its just taxing. These classes teach me appreciation for all types of music, not just the ones I listen/play. Also included in my school life is music theory, which is one of the most interesting classes Ive ever taken. This class helps me implement the things I learn into my own playing and writing. A fter I go home on the weekends I mostly write music and play in my band, Wynkus, with Andrew Roberts playing drums and Daniel Nix on bass. Playing in a band is the most enjoyable thing I have ever done. Its the foundation of why I want to be a musician. These things so far have all been directly related to music. But I also find that I am governed by music in the way I related and act towards people, the way I see current issues, how I si...

Hamlet - Appearance Vs. Reality Essays - Characters In Hamlet

Hamlet - Appearance Vs. Reality Essays - Characters In Hamlet Hamlet - Appearance vs. Reality Hamlet one of Shakespeare's greatest plays, where the young prince of Denmark must uncover the truth about his fathers death. Hamlet a play that tells the story of a young prince who's father recently died. Hamlets uncle Claudius marries his mother the queen and takes the throne. As the play is told Hamlet finds out his father was murdered by the recently crowned king. The theme that remains conezt throughout the play is appearance versus reality. Things within the play appear to be true and honest but in reality are infested with evil. Many of the characters within the play hide behind a mask of falseness. Four of the main characters that hid behind this mask are Polonius, Rosencrantz (Guildenstern), the king Cluadius. From behind this mask they give the impression of a person who is sincere and genuine, in reality they are plagued with lies and evil. There appearance will make it very difficult for Hamlet to uncover the truth, the characters hide behind. Polonius the kings royal assiezt has a preoccupation with appearance. He always wants to keep up the appearance of loving and caring person. Polonius appears like a man who loves and cares about his son, Laertes. Polonius speaks to his son with advice that sounds sincere but in reality it is rehearsed, hollow and without feeling. Polonius gives his advice only to appear to be the loving caring father. The reality is he only speaks to appear sincere as a politician, to look good rather then actually be good: "And borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. This above all: to thine own self be true, And it must follow, as the night the day, Thou canst not then be false to any man. Farewell; my blessing season this in thee!" Act 1 Polonius gives his son Laertes his blessing to go away, he sends a spy to follow him and keep an eye on him. This shows his lack of trust for anyone, he gives the appearance of a confident father who trusts his son to go off on his own. In reality he lies about his trust for his son by sending a spy to watch him. His advice he gives his son is rehearsed and only said to give the appearance of a loving father. Polonius further adds to the theme appearance verses reality by ordering Ophelia to stop seeing Hamlet. He lies to her telling her that Hamlet does not love her, he only lusts for her, in truth he does love her: Ay, springes to catch woodcocks. I do know, When the blood burns , how prodigal the soul Through the play Polonius hids behind his mask appearing to be honest loving parent. In reality Polonius lies, manipulates people and eavesdrops on peoples conversation. Polonius helps contribute to the theme appearance verses reality by showing how his appearance is not his true nature, behind the mask there lies someone totally different. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are two of Hamlets childhood friends who when asked by the king, try to find out what is troubling the young prince. Both help to contribute to the theme by showing there appearance of being Hamlets friends. The pair go to Hamlet pretending to be his friends when in truth they are only there because the king asked them to find the truth. There is some irony within the twins, they are asked by the king to find out the truth by hiding within a lie, by pretending to be his friend: A dream is but a shadow Act II. Hamlet knows there purpose for their visit is to dig into his soul to find the real reason for his actions as of late. As the play continues the twins are asked again by the king to go to Hamlet and try again to find the real reason for Hamlets behavior. Hamlet insults them at every chance knowing they are lying to him about there purpose of the visit: Tis as easy as lying; govern these ventages with you finger and thumb, give it breath with your mouth...Act III As the melodrama continues Hamlet goes with the twins to reclaim money that another state owes Denmark.

Are Parts of the U.S.A. Patriot Act Unconstitutional Research Paper

Are Parts of the U.S.A. Patriot Act Unconstitutional - Research Paper Example A Patriot Act is not unconstitutional because†¦ 1. The Patriot Act enhances effective communication between various agencies that fight against terrorism 2. It liberalized many rules with respect to investigation and surveillance to help Federal agencies responsible for crime prevention. 3. It provides increased funding for victims of terrorist attacks and their families, as well as for the rebuilding of business and infrastructure that are damaged by terrorism 4. It helps investigating agencies to deal with the technologically sophisticated terrorists. 5. It cut off support networks that provide enough support to terrorist groups The major criticism labeled against the Patriot Act is the threat raised by it to the fundamental rights and liberties of people. In the name of safety and security, investigating agencies can interrogate and imprison anybody based on suspicion. It is not necessary that the information gathered by the investigating agencies is always correct. False inf ormation lead investigating agencies to arrest even innocent people in the name of Patriot act. It is impossible for Americans to keep their privacy intact after the introduction of this act. In short, patriot act prevents people from enjoying their natural rights, freedom and liberties. The second disadvantage of patriot act is the fact that it allows indefinite imprisonment of anybody based on mere suspicion without access to counsel or meaningful recourse to the Federal courts. Before the introduction of Patriot act, it was mandatory to the investigating agencies to present a person in custody in courts within a specified time period. Now it is possible for the investigating agencies to keep a suspected person in custody as long as they wish without presenting him in the courts. Even innocent people forced to suffer the torture of investigating officials because of these controversial clauses in patriot act. â€Å"The Patriot Act provides sweeping power to government agencies to monitor the personal habits of not only those who have been identified as suspected terrorists, but anyone residing in the United States as well as United States citizens residing abroad†i. The third disadvantage of patriot act is the permission given to Federal agents to conduct searches without search warrants. Earlier, search warrants were mandatory before conducting any searches in houses or apartments. Now it is not necessary for the investigating officials to get the permission from courts to conduct searches in any locations. It should be noted that even during midnights, investigating agents creating troubles to innocent people. In short, investigating officials can misuse the authority given to them by patriot act to conduct searches without taking permission either from the courts or from the suspected person. The patriot permits FBI to monitor even religious services, internet chat rooms, political demonstrations, and other public meeting